The Emergence of Railroads

 Source: Wikimedia Commons.

The advent of steam power was crucial for railroads. Large boilers in locomotives, heated by wood or coal, produced the steam that powered hefty pistons and turned the wheels of these massive machines. England ushered in the railroad era in 1825 when the John Bull locomotive traveled along a track in South Wales.

 Source: Wikimedia Commons.

In the United States, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company conducted a test run of “Tom Thumb,” a steam locomotive, in 1830, achieving speeds of fifteen miles per hour, albeit a horse outran it to the finish line. The following month, South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company showcased its steam engine, the “Best Friend of Charleston.” By the end of that year, passengers were traveling by train in South Carolina, marking the beginning of a transformative era in transportation.

The rapid expansion of U.S. railroads saw sixty companies operating over 2,800 miles (4,480 km) of track by 1840. By 1916, the rail network reached its peak, covering approximately 254,000 miles (406,400 km), and today, it operates over 170,000 miles (272,000 km) of tracks.

Railroads and the Civil War

During the 1860s, railroads were pivotal in the American Civil War, enabling swift troop movements that sometimes altered the outcomes of battles. For instance, to alleviate the Confederate siege of Chattanooga, 20,000 Union soldiers traveled by train over 1,200 miles (1,920 km) from Virginia to Tennessee in just eleven days, underscoring the railroads' strategic importance.

Trains not only expedited troop deployment but also facilitated the transport of supplies. During the Battle of Petersburg in 1864-1865, the Union Army relied on City Point, Virginia, which became the world’s busiest port, receiving 1,500 tons (1,360,500 kilos) of supplies daily. Unloaded goods were transported to warehouses and then delivered to the front lines, ensuring the Union Army had enough provisions for thirty days. Meanwhile, the Confederate Army received supplies via rail from southern states.

 Source: Photo taken by author at Petersburg National Battlefield, artist unknown.

The Civil War showcased how railroads bolstered industrial production and economic expansion, shifting the balance of power from the slave-holding South to the industrial North, and later to the American West. Railroads catalyzed significant advances in the production and distribution of goods and materials and in the movement of people, contributing to national growth and the industrial revolution of the 19th century.

The Vision for a Transcontinental Railroad

Before the advent of railroads, traversing the continent by oxen-drawn wagons or on foot took months, a subject I previously explored. To connect the expanding nation, visions of a transcontinental railroad emerged. In 1850, the U.S. House of Representatives advocated for a Pacific Railroad that would

> “cement the commercial, social, and political relations of the East and the West, as well as providing a highway over which commerce of Europe and Asia will pass... boosting trade, shortening emigrants’ journey, and aiding the army in managing Native Americans resisting white settlement.”

The desire to foster commercial growth, unify the country, tap into the Asian market, and subdue Native Americans led the U.S. Congress in 1853 to authorize the Army's Corps of Topographical Engineers to scout the optimal transcontinental route.

The Corps identified four potential routes, concluding that the most favorable one ran along the southern border, as it was the least mountainous. However, with tensions rising between the North and South, neither side was willing to support a project that might advantage the other, resulting in no immediate progress.

While many advocated for a Pacific Railroad, significant opposition arose, primarily due to a prevailing distrust of federal involvement in internal improvements. The 19th-century federal government was minimal, and with a spirit of laissez-faire capitalism, many believed the government should refrain from aiding businesses. However, the extensive construction required for railroads across vast stretches of sparsely populated land and mountainous terrain necessitated government assistance.

The California Associates

In 1860, Californian Theodore Judah sparked interest among several Sacramento businessmen, known as The Associates, in a Pacific Railroad project. Consequently, Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Mark Hopkins, and Charles and Edwin Crocker founded the Central Pacific Railroad Company (CP). From these modest beginnings, they built immense fortunes that enabled them to establish banks, serve as Senators, and found Stanford University.

Meanwhile, in 1862, Congress enacted the Pacific Railway Act, establishing the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) and allocating $50 million for construction. With Southern lawmakers absent during the Civil War, President Lincoln designated Omaha, Nebraska, as the eastern terminus.

Although the war delayed track laying, Congress passed a subsequent Pacific Railway Act in 1864, granting an additional $50 million in loans to the railroad companies. These loans varied based on the terrain: $16,000 per mile (1.6 km) east of the Rockies and west of the Sierras, $32,000 per mile between the mountain ranges, and $48,000 per mile in mountainous areas.

 Source: Wikimedia Commons.

The acts also allocated substantial land grants to both the CP and the UP. Each company secured ten square miles (26 square km) of land for every mile of track laid, along with rights to any coal or iron found on that land. Over time, U.S. railroad companies acquired 131,230,358 acres (53,107,042 hectares) of public land, primarily in the West, for their rail systems.

The CP Heads East, the UP Heads West

Surveyors initially mapped out a route with a maximum incline of 2% to facilitate railroad construction. Workers then prepared the ground for the rails by either digging or blasting through solid rock using dynamite, leveling it with hand tools and draft animals. Once the groundwork was established, square wooden “sleepers” were laid down, and iron rails were placed on top.

Constructing a mile of track required 400 iron rails, each fastened to the wooden sleepers with twenty-four spikes, necessitating three strikes for each spike. Consequently, laying down one mile of track involved 12,000 blows of a sledgehammer—a monumental undertaking when multiplied over 1,900 miles.

 Source: David Brossard photo on Wikimedia Commons.

Thousands toiled to construct the railroad, while many others operated the trains as engineers, fire stokers, conductors, and porters. Additionally, numerous telegraph operators ensured smooth station operations and accident prevention. In 1900, Chicago alone employed 15,000 individuals in its rail yards and offices.

After 1865, construction of the Pacific Railroad surged ahead, with the CP and UP racing to lay more track than the other to secure greater government subsidies. Starting from California, the CP faced immediate challenges, including a steep ascent into the Sierra Nevada Mountains, where progress was hampered by the need to blast through solid rock. The CP reached the Sierra summit in July 1867 and descended to connect with its construction in Nevada.

Much of the materials for the Central Pacific were shipped around South America’s coast and then transported by train from San Francisco to the railhead. The CP employed thousands of Chinese laborers to grade the land, blast tunnels, build bridges and culverts, lay tracks, and drive spikes. By 1865, 7,000 Chinese worked for the CP, increasing to 11,000 in 1868. The use of Chinese labor drastically reduced the anticipated ten-year timeline for the western section of the Pacific Railroad to just four years.

 Photos by author at the Golden Spike National Historical Park.

Meanwhile, the Union Pacific laid over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of track in four years from Omaha, traversing prairies, the Rocky Mountains, and the Great Basin deserts. Recent immigrants, particularly Irish men fleeing famine and poverty, comprised a large portion of the workforce.

Railroad workers resided at the terminus of the expanding track in makeshift towns known as “Hell on Wheels,” which offered various entertainment options. As the track extended, buildings were transported by rail to the new locations, and the cycle of work and revelry began anew.

The Golden Spike

On May 10, 1869, the locomotives of the Union Pacific and Central Pacific met at Promontory Point in northern Utah. A golden spike was driven into the final sleeper to mark the monumental achievement of constructing a railroad across 1,913 miles (3,060 km) of the western United States. Telegraph messages transmitted the news east and west, heralding the success of this ambitious endeavor. Cheers erupted from the crowd, champagne bottles popped, and an iron spike quickly replaced the golden one, which now resides in a museum at Stanford University.

 Source: Photo by Andrew J. Russell, Wikimedia Commons.

The Pacific Railroad incurred significant costs in its construction, with Union Pacific expenditures reaching approximately $63.5 million (over $1 billion today), half of which was funded through federal loans, resulting in a profit of $16.5 million. The Central Pacific's costs and profits are harder to ascertain due to the destruction of many account books during a congressional investigation, but estimates suggest construction costs of $36 million, with the CP securing land grants and government bonds totaling $38.5 million.

The Golden Spike National Historical Park

During my visit to Golden Spike National Historical Park at Promontory Point, I spoke with Justin Glasgow, the Chief of Interpretation, who shared insights on how this site, which united the UP and CP, reshaped the United States in various ways:

• First, the transcontinental railroad was instrumental in the nation’s recovery following the Civil War.
• It revolutionized the economy by connecting previously isolated areas to regional, national, and international markets, allowing farmers, miners, and other producers to ship their goods cost-effectively over vast distances. By linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, it positioned the U.S. as a global power.
• Railroads transformed our perception of time and distance; before trains, travel time was often measured by how far one could go in a day, but now, journeys that once took days could be completed in mere hours.
• They also redefined geographical space, as existing towns that were bypassed with new rail lines diminished in importance while new settlements near train stations flourished.
• Railroads opened vast territories to settlers, often displacing Native Americans who had lived there for generations. During the era of “Indian Removal,” railroads facilitated the forced relocation of some tribes from their ancestral lands in the East to “Indian Territory” in the West.
• For better or worse, the railroads exerted a profound influence on the nation’s economy and politics throughout the Gilded Age. On one side, the U.S. industrialized rapidly, outpacing European nations in production and commerce. On the other, railroads conspired to create monopolies and engage in corrupt practices. The economic downturns of 1857, 1873, and 1893 were partly triggered by reckless bank investments in railroads.
• Justin also noted that railroads inspired protest movements towards the end of the 19th century. In response to rising transportation costs and railroad monopolies, farmers formed the Populist Reform movement, which evolved into the Progressive Reforms of the early 20th century. To combat railroad excesses during the Gilded Age, the U.S. government began implementing regulations on railroads and large businesses as the 20th century commenced.
• The Pacific Railroad altered the role of the federal government. Public funds were utilized to support these railroad enterprises for private gain. Ironically, this shift away from laissez-faire capitalism by railroads prompted increased government regulation, a topic we will delve into in a future article on Teatime History.
• Lastly, in a fascinating development, railroad corporations began to be recognized as individuals. The 14th Amendment, initially enacted to protect former slaves, was utilized to challenge government regulation and taxation. In 1886, a railroad attorney argued before the Supreme Court in Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad that corporations should be considered “persons” under the 14th Amendment:

> “I come now to say that the Southern Pacific Railroad company and its creditors and stockholders are among the ‘persons’ protected by the 14th Amendment.”

The Supreme Court concurred, affirming that the 14th Amendment extended protections to corporations.

Steam Locomotives in Action

As our conversation concluded, Justin invited me outside for a special experience. The park features replicas of two locomotives that met here in 1869—the CP’s Jupiter and UP’s 119. During my visit, the sixty-ton 119 roared past with all its might—whistle blowing, wheels clattering on the tracks, and the steam locomotive billowing thick coal smoke.

 Photo by author.

I have a fondness for trains and am currently composing this paragraph while traveling home after volunteering at the Paris 2024 Olympics. Throughout the Games, the TGV (bullet trains), commuter trains, and Metro subway system were essential for transporting 12 million individuals to various events across France.


Globally, trains convey billions of passengers and trillions of dollars' worth of goods daily—an indispensable component of modern life.

Trains have been integral to our society for 200 years, fundamentally changing the world. In the 19th century, railroads played a crucial role in establishing the country's growing power and fueling industrialization. They streamlined manufacturing, introduced new military strategies, and fundamentally reshaped perceptions of time and space. Without trains, America would not have surged into the Industrial Revolution with such velocity.

References

• Adam Burns, “Railroads in the 1840s, A New Industry Takes Flight,” American Rails
• Gordon Clemenson, Steam Over Scranton: The Locomotives of Steamtown, Historic Resource Study, Steamtown National Historic Site, 1991
• Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America, W.W. Norton & Company, 2013
• “A Mere Question of Time,” film directed by Shirley Witt, National Park Service, Visitors Center, Grant’s Headquarters, Petersburg National Battlefield, Prince George, Virginia.

Historic Sites Visited

Golden Spike National Historical Park, Brigham City, Utah Petersburg National Battlefield, Prince George, Virginia Steamtown National Historic Site, Scranton, Pennsylvania