The Overlooked Asian Kingdoms That Defied the Mongol Empire
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The Mongol Empire, renowned for its vast conquests, encountered significant resistance in Asia that ultimately curtailed its ambitions. Despite its formidable reputation, the Mongols faced defeats that chipped away at their perceived invincibility. This article delves into three lesser-known Asian kingdoms that played crucial roles in halting Mongol advances, contributing to the empire's eventual decline.
Paul Kriwaczek once remarked, “Empires are like Ponzi schemes: financial frauds in which previous investors are paid returns out of new investors’ deposits. The costs of holding imperial territory can only be underwritten by loot and tribute extracted by constant new conquests.” This sentiment, originally aimed at the Assyrian Empire, resonates with the history of every major empire, including that of the Mongols.
The Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan, rose from humble beginnings to establish the largest contiguous empire in history. However, within thirty years of Genghis Khan's death, the empire began to fracture, plagued by internal strife and military setbacks. Notably, the Mongols faced significant defeats at the hands of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt, which marked the beginning of their decline. Their attempts to conquer Japan were thwarted not only by fierce resistance but also by disastrous weather conditions.
While many are aware of the Mamluk victory at Ain Jalut in 1260 and the legendary kamikaze winds that destroyed the Mongol fleet approaching Japan, fewer know about the contributions of three distinct kingdoms in Asia that played pivotal roles in halting Mongol expansion: the kingdoms of Dai Viet, Majapahit in Indonesia, and the Khilji dynasty in India.
Dai Viet and Champa, Vietnam
The Vietnamese kingdoms of Dai Viet and Champa, though rivals, united against the Mongol threat. The Mongols first invaded Dai Viet in 1258, aiming to encircle the wealthy Song dynasty of southern China. Led by Uriyangkhadai, the son of the famous Mongol general Subutai, the Mongols initially triumphed, capturing the capital Thang Long (modern Hanoi). However, a scorched-earth strategy by the Vietnamese forced the Mongols to retreat.
For 25 years, both Dai Viet and Champa opted for tribute payments to the Mongol Khan. Tensions escalated when Kublai Khan demanded personal submission from both kingdoms. In 1282, Mongol general Sogetu invaded Champa, leading to a prolonged guerrilla conflict after initial successes. When Dai Viet counterattacked in 1285, the Vietnamese forces dealt a significant blow to the Mongols, resulting in their retreat.
Subsequent invasions by the Mongols ended in failure, and by the reign of Kublai’s successor, Temür Khan, the kingdoms established amicable relations with the Mongols, avoiding further conflict. The failed invasions of Vietnam serve as a historical lesson for later great powers.
The Majapahit Kingdom, Indonesia
The Mongol invasion of Java in 1289 unfolded like an epic tale of betrayal and political intrigue. King Kertanagara of the Singhasari kingdom resisted Kublai Khan's demands for tribute, infuriating the Mongol leader. In response, Kublai prepared a massive fleet to subjugate Java.
Upon arriving, the Mongol forces learned that Kertanagara had been overthrown. Raden Wijaya, Kertanagara’s son-in-law, sought Mongol assistance to reclaim his position against the Kediri kingdom. However, he cleverly manipulated the situation to his advantage, allowing the Mongols to take heavy losses before launching a surprise ambush.
After six months of conflict, the Mongols withdrew from Java, leaving behind significant weaponry that helped Wijaya establish the Majapahit kingdom, which controlled vital trade routes in Southeast Asia.
The Khilji Dynasty of Delhi, India
The Mongol incursions into India began in 1221 under Genghis Khan's command, but the full-scale invasion was never realized due to the empire's focus on consolidating newly acquired territories. Following the division of the Mongol Empire in 1260, Duwa of the Chagatai Khanate led raids into India, targeting the weakened Delhi Sultanate.
In 1297, the Khilji dynasty faced a critical Mongol assault at Killi. Sultan Alauddin Khilji, against advice, opted for a military confrontation rather than negotiation. Despite initial setbacks, the Khilji forces, under Zafar Khan, countered the Mongol maneuvers decisively, culminating in a miraculous Mongol retreat.
Subsequent attempts to conquer Delhi were also thwarted, marking the end of Mongol ambitions in the region. Had they succeeded in subjugating India and Southeast Asia, the course of history might have been dramatically altered.
Though the Mongols never achieved dominance in these regions, their legacy remains as the architects of the largest land empire in history. Genghis Khan's strategic vision was pivotal, and understanding his methods can shed light on the empire's remarkable rise and fall.
Sources
- John Man (2014) Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, his heirs, and the founding of modern China.
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- Rossabi, Morris (2009). Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times.
- Thomas T. Allsen. Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia (Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization Cambridge University Press; March 25, 2004).