The Ghostly Painters

In 1914, doctors Sabin von Sochocky and George Willis established the Radium Luminous Material Corporation, later named the United States Radium Corporation (USRC). Their main product was a luminous paint, leading to a demand for instrument dials and clock faces, all painted by a growing workforce of young women.

These women were often in their late teens or early twenties, with some as young as fourteen, encouraged by older siblings to misrepresent their ages for employment in New Jersey’s studios.

For these dial painters, many from economically disadvantaged backgrounds, the high wages were life-changing. While factory workers earned about $8 weekly, dial painters made around $20, allowing them to indulge in luxuries, adopt the latest fashions, and enjoy nightlife. This newfound income represented a step toward independence, coinciding with women's suffrage movements gaining momentum.

However, the work was demanding. Many women aspired to excel in speed and precision, leading them to adopt the risky practice of "lip-pointing," where they would place brushes in their mouths to achieve a fine tip. This practice was common, with women repeatedly using their mouths for this purpose throughout the day.

The paint used by USRC combined radium salt and zinc sulfate, creating a fine dust that permeated the air. This dust settled into their hair and clothes, and despite being warned against waste, the women often played with it, painting their faces and teeth with the luminous material. Some enjoyed the glow they emitted in the dark, earning them the nickname "ghost girls," while others noticed their clothes shone at night.

In stark contrast, USRC executives protected themselves from radium exposure with gloves and glasses, while instructing their female employees to handle it carelessly. Mary Doty later noted the hypocrisy of society's treatment of women compared to the protections afforded to livestock.

The Consequences of Ignorance

The first signs of trouble for many of the dial painters were persistent toothaches, a result of radium affecting their jaws. Extracting teeth only exacerbated their conditions, leading to severe infections. Women like Marguerite Carlough and Hazel Vincent experienced alarming symptoms as the radium spread throughout their bodies.

Radium, chemically similar to calcium, was mistakenly absorbed by the body and deposited in bones, causing significant damage due to its radioactive properties. While alpha radiation is generally harmless when outside the body, once inside, it wreaks havoc on cells and DNA, resulting in necrosis and cancer.

In 1924, an investigation by doctors Cecil and Katherine Drinker revealed a direct connection between radium exposure and the health issues faced by the dial painters. However, USRC president Arthur Roeder suppressed the findings, fearing legal repercussions for the company.

Despite the cover-up, medical professionals increasingly recognized radium as the source of the women's ailments. By 1925, Sabin von Sochocky acknowledged the situation as an occupational disease. Still, the lack of communication among doctors hindered their understanding of the issue.

In response, USRC sought to shift blame onto the women. Some autopsy results were withheld, and they suggested that the illnesses were unrelated to work. While young women were falling ill and dying, Roeder and USRC turned a blind eye to their suffering.

Standing Up for Justice

Grace Fryer, born on March 14, 1899, began her work at USRC in 1917. Described as intelligent and resolute, she emerged as a key figure in the fight against USRC. After two years of seeking legal representation, she found a lawyer willing to take her case amidst tight statutes of limitations and the long-term health effects of radium poisoning.

In 1927, Fryer enlisted Raymond Berry, who recognized the injustices faced by the women. USRC expressed shock at the implications of accountability, citing legal protections as a shield against claims.

Berry pursued the case in the Court of Chancery, focusing on equity rather than strict legalities. With his guidance, Fryer and other affected women filed a significant lawsuit against USRC, seeking $250,000 in damages to cover medical expenses and support their families.

USRC's tactics included discrediting the women and asserting that no one instructed them to handle paint improperly. However, public sentiment began to shift as the Drinkers published their findings despite USRC's threats, bolstering evidence against the corporation.

Achieving Justice

As evidence mounted against USRC, the company resorted to delay tactics in hopes of undermining the women's claims. Despite their suffering, the presiding judge, William Clark, remained committed to expediting the proceedings.

As public support for the dial painters grew, they faced criticism, especially during the Great Depression when employment was scarce. Nevertheless, Grace Fryer was unwavering in her pursuit of justice for herself and her fellow workers.

In January 1928, the women began to testify, recounting their experiences and struggles. Judge Clark supported their claims and worked to protect them from USRC's intimidation tactics.

When Arthur Roeder testified, his vague denials raised doubts about the company's credibility. As the trial unfolded, the dial painters captured public interest, becoming symbols of resilience against corporate negligence.

On June 4, 1928, USRC capitulated, marking a significant victory not just for the women but also for workers’ rights and occupational safety laws. Although the company attempted to evade responsibility, the Supreme Court ultimately affirmed compensation for victims of radium poisoning.

As a result of Grace Fryer's determination, the records of the deceased women were amended, confirming the true cause of their deaths as radium exposure rather than unrelated illnesses.

Lasting Impact

The dial painters of New Jersey achieved a monumental victory against corporate exploitation, but the effects of radium exposure remained. Some women succumbed to their illnesses in their thirties and forties, while Grace Fryer, who fought tirelessly, passed away at thirty-four.

Their struggle resonated throughout American history, prompting reforms that improved worker safety standards. The public fallout from the case diminished the enthusiasm for radium and illuminated the perils of nuclear power, culminating in the establishment of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in 1971.

Despite the half-life of radium being 1600 years, the legacy of the dial painters endures. Their story serves as a reminder of the human cost of industrial negligence and the ongoing fight for workers' rights.

Geoffrey Bunting is a writer and book designer whose work has appeared in numerous publications. He can be found at geoffreybunting.co.uk.

Further Reading

1. Kate Moore, The Radium Girls (Simon & Schuster, 2016)
2. Radium City, dir. Carole Langer (Carole Langer Productions, 1987)
3. Georgie Hardstark and Karen Kilgariff, Lick the Clock (My Favourite Murder, 2018)

This article originally appeared in issue 148 of The Historian, published on April 26, 2021.